Maximizing Growing Systems

(A series of presentations by Ken Hamilton, Biominerals Technologies, Maysville, Utah)

Section 1: The massive role of CO₂
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LsebeFrDzEU

This section focuses on the importance of CO₂ in plant production. While CO₂ is not listed as an NPK-type nutrient requirement, it is, without exception, the most critical and important nutrient in growing plants and producing yield.

CO₂ is more important to high-yield potential than nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, or any other mineral element.

At first, that statement may seem surprising because the fertilizer and chemical industry has strongly instilled in our agricultural consciousness that NPK is what matters in fertility. Rarely do we hear discussion about atmospheric gases.

When we examine a plant’s dry matter weight, we can see what it is actually composed of:

• Carbon: 45%

• Oxygen: 45%

• Hydrogen: 6%

• Nitrogen: 1–1.5%

Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen are atmospheric gases. Nitrogen is also an atmospheric gas—there are roughly 37,000 tons of nitrogen above every acre—but it is not naturally in a soluble form.

Elemental carbon, elemental oxygen, elemental hydrogen, and nitrogen are not directly plant-available. Yet these elements make up approximately 97.5% of the plant’s total dry matter weight.

With these elements comprising so much of plant biomass, how do we convert them from an insoluble elemental state into plant-usable forms? This is the process of fixation.

Carbon and oxygen must become carbon dioxide (CO₂). Oxygen can be fixed into water with hydrogen, or into nitrate (NO₃) with nitrogen. Hydrogen can combine with oxygen to make water or with nitrogen to make ammonium.

Nitrogen is available through fertilizer, but it is also fixed biologically by beneficial microbes such as Rhizobium and Azotobacter, which convert atmospheric nitrogen into plant-available forms.

These atmospheric elements make up 97.5% of plant dry matter.

By contrast, soil-derived elements—such as magnesium, potassium, calcium, phosphate, and sulfur—make up only about 2%. Together, nine major elements make up approximately 99.5% of plant dry matter.

The remaining 0.5% consists of trace elements.

These trace elements act as enzyme activators not only for microbes and insects, but also for plants, animals, and humans.

Enzymes require trace minerals to activate and function. These trace minerals are like fuel for an engine. When you buy a tractor, you don’t get a lifetime supply of fuel—you must continuously add fuel. Likewise, trace elements fuel enzymatic systems.

These trace elements activate enzymes, and the enzymes then convert raw minerals and elemental compounds into progressively more complex biological structures until we have complete plant structure and plant nutrition.

Major trace elements include:

• Boron

• Chlorine

• Manganese

• Iron

• Copper

• Zinc

• Molybdenum

• Cobalt

• Nickel

There are also roughly 60 additional trace minerals that serve essential or beneficial roles in plant function.

These minerals are not structural in large quantities, but they activate the systems that build structure.

Minerals are required for enzymatic processes that build plant tissue. Many minerals participate in hundreds to thousands of enzymatic reactions. They are vital for activating the biochemical processes that allow plants to transform raw materials into metabolites that form all above- and below-ground structures.

Photosynthesis: The First Chemical Reaction

Photosynthesis is the first major chemical reaction occurring in plants.

Using sunlight:

6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂

Through photosynthesis, plants use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars and oxygen.

This involves splitting carbon dioxide and water and recombining them into glucose (a monosaccharide):

• 6 Carbon

• 12 Hydrogen

• 6 Oxygen

plus 6 oxygen molecules released as O₂.

As plants begin constructing structure, the first primary metabolites formed are:

1. Carbohydrates

2. Proteins

3. Lipids (fats and oils)

Notice:

Carbohydrates

Made of:

• Carbon

• Hydrogen

• Oxygen

Proteins

Made of:

• Carbon

• Hydrogen

• Oxygen
  plus:

• Nitrogen or sulfur

Lipids

Made of:

• Carbon

• Hydrogen

• Oxygen
  plus:

• Phosphate

Everything is fundamentally built on the carbon–hydrogen–oxygen (CHO) base.

Carbohydrates

Plant carbohydrates exist as different carbon-chain sugars.

The first group is monosaccharides, comprising five groups and 28 sugars. These include:

• 3-carbon sugars

• 4-carbon sugars

• 5-carbon sugars

• 6-carbon sugars

• 7-carbon sugars

Each higher-order sugar simply adds more carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

As plant structure becomes more complex, nature repeats a simple formula.

A disaccharide is simply two monosaccharides combined.

An oligosaccharide consists of 3–10 monosaccharides.

Polysaccharides are long chains of many monosaccharides.

As carbohydrate chains lengthen, they become larger, more complex, and structurally diverse.

Proteins and Amino Acids

When we examine amino acids, we introduce additional molecules such as nitrogen or sulfur.

For example, tryptophan contains:

• 11 carbons

• 12 hydrogens

• 2 nitrogens

• 2 oxygens

The key point is this:

Amino acids are still predominantly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Everything in the plant world—and indeed the food world—is fundamentally built on CHO. We simply add additional minerals or elements to alter the construction.

Fats and Oils

Fatty acids follow the same principle.

Whether examining:

• Saturated fats

• Monounsaturated fats

• Omega-6 polyunsaturated fats

• Omega-3 polyunsaturated fats

• Trans fats

their structure remains overwhelmingly based on:

• Carbon

• Hydrogen

• Oxygen

Nothing more.

Phospholipids, which form cell membranes, contain:

• Choline

• Phosphate group

• Glycerol head

• Fatty acid tails

The phospholipid membrane forms both the outer and inner surfaces of cells.

Again, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are the dominant structural components, with nitrogen and phosphate added to modify membrane function.

Secondary Metabolites

After producing primary metabolites (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, oils), plants move on to producing secondary metabolites.

These fall into four major groups:

1. Alkaloids

2. Terpenoids

3. Phenolics

4. Sulfur-containing amino compounds

Examples of alkaloids include:

• Morphine

• Nicotine

• Cocaine

• Caffeine

Again, these are built primarily from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with alkaloids also containing nitrogen.

Terpenoids include numerous subgroups such as:

• Monoterpenoids

• Sesquiterpenoids

• Diterpenoids

These too are fundamentally built from carbon and hydrogen, with additional oxygen-containing compounds such as:

• Esters

• Aldehydes

• Ketones

• Phenols

Phenolics are likewise based on carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

This is where plants generate extraordinary diversity of medicinal compounds.

When Hippocrates said:

“Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food,”

most of these medicinal compounds were found in plant secondary metabolites.

None of these compounds can become functional without trace elements activating the necessary enzymes.

In just the terpenoid group alone, over 22,000 terpenoids have been identified.

Each type may contain 300–800 different components or constituents.

That means potentially 7–15 million different molecular arrangements built from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen—within just one of the four secondary metabolite groups.

Across all groups, we may be looking at 30–50 million different plant compounds, all created from CHO with enzymatic assistance.

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Photosynthesis converts:

• Carbon dioxide

• Water

into:

• Sugar

• Oxygen

Cellular respiration performs the exact opposite.

Inside mitochondria, sugars combine with oxygen to produce:

• Carbon dioxide

• Water

• ATP energy

Thus:

Photosynthesis stores energy.
Cellular respiration releases energy.

These are mirror-image processes.

This means the entire energy structure of:

• Microbes

• Plants

• Insects

• Animals

• Humans

is fundamentally carbon–hydrogen–oxygen based.

There is no NPK in this energy system.

Not a bit.

It is CHO that drives life’s energy systems.

That is the critical aspect of plant nutrition that agriculture largely ignores.

Section 1 Summary

Plant dry matter content consists of:

• Carbon: 45%

• Oxygen: 45%

• Hydrogen: 6%

These three atmospheric elements make up approximately 96% of total plant dry matter.

These elements are not even considered in conventional fertility models focused on NPK.

Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen are required at over 30 times greater quantities than NPK, calcium, sulfur, and magnesium combined.

CO₂ is the single most important element for high plant yield.

Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen form the basis of:

• Photosynthesis

• Cellular respiration

• Carbohydrates

• Proteins

• Lipids

• Fatty acids

• Omega-3 and Omega-6 oils

• Secondary metabolites

• Medicinal compounds

Everything is fundamentally built on carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Section 2: Microorganisms as the Biological Gateway to Plant Nutrition

https://www.youtube.c om/watch?v=PwImwm2tkNY

The key to utilizing our atmospheric gases and soil elements is the biological gateway through which these elements become soluble so that plants can absorb and use them in their most effective form.

When we look at the periodic table, we understand that there are 17 essential nutrients required for plants to live and function at a minimum.

There are many additional elements—some essential and many beneficial—but focusing only on the bare minimum does not adequately reflect the full spectrum of minerals that plants use for all their functions, including the synthesis of primary and secondary metabolites.

Elements combine to form molecules.

For example:

Water (H₂O)

• 2 Hydrogen

• 1 Oxygen

• Molecular weight: 18

Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)

• 1 Carbon

• 2 Oxygen

• Molecular weight: 44

Nitrogen Gas (N₂)

• 2 Nitrogen atoms

• Molecular weight: 28

Oxygen Gas (O₂)

• 2 Oxygen atoms

• Molecular weight: 32

There are approximately:

• 37,000 tons of nitrogen above every acre

• Nearly 10,000 tons of oxygen above every acre

But can plants actually use these atmospheric resources directly?

Conventional agriculture often tells us that plant nutrition is primarily about NPK.

But where does the other 97.3% of plant dry matter come from?

And more importantly, how do we manage for it?

Soluble vs Insoluble Minerals in Soil

A typical soil test from a laboratory is designed to measure what is technically soluble in soil.

It does not tell us everything present in the soil; rather, it gives an estimate of what is in a soluble, plant-available form.

Here is a useful exercise:

Take every mineral reported in your soil analysis and calculate the total soluble mineral content.

Usually, after converting parts per million to pounds per acre, you may find something like:

• 5,000 lbs

• 6,000 lbs

• 7,000 lbs

• 8,000 lbs

of total soluble minerals.

However, the top 6 inches of soil per acre contains approximately:

• 2 to 3 million pounds of total mineral mass

depending on soil type.

Examples:

• Sandy soils with larger aggregates weigh less

• Heavy clay soils with finer particles weigh more

Clay-rich soils with high Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) often approach 3 million pounds per acre.

When you divide the total soluble minerals by the total soil mass, something remarkable becomes clear:

Less than 1% of soil minerals are ever in a soluble state.

Typically, only:

• 0.2%

• 0.3%

• 0.4%

of total soil minerals are soluble at any given time.

Nature intentionally keeps most minerals in an insoluble form.

Why?

To prevent nutrient loss through:

• Leaching

• Runoff

• Chemical instability

The key question becomes:

How do we solubilize these nutrients and make them plant-available?

Example Soil Analysis: Sandy Soil

Consider a soil report with a total exchange capacity of:

CEC = 8.82

This represents a relatively sandy soil.

Adding up all soluble nutrients gives:

3,745 pounds of soluble nutrients

Yet the top 6 inches still contains at least:

2 million pounds of total soil mass

This means less than:

0.2% of total minerals

are in a soluble form.

Example Soil Analysis: Higher Clay Soil

Consider another soil with:

CEC = 23.81

This indicates a heavier soil with greater nutrient-holding capacity.

Total soluble nutrients:

10,647 pounds

Total soil mass in top 6 inches:

~2.5 million pounds

Even here, only about:

0.4%

of total minerals are soluble.

What Soil Tests Miss

This exercise demonstrates a critical principle:

There is naturally very little solubility in soil.

This is by design.

Furthermore, what laboratory soil tests measure represents only a tiny fraction of total plant nutrition.

The soluble minerals reported in standard soil tests account for only about:

3.5% of total plant dry matter requirements

This is an extremely narrow view of plant fertility.

Managing fertility based on only a few soluble minerals leads to a highly incomplete nutritional model.

As a result, modern agriculture often compensates with increasing dependence on:

• Insecticides

• Herbicides

• Fungicides

• Synthetic chemical inputs

These inputs have increased decade after decade as agricultural systems have become less biologically inclusive.

The Microbial Perspective

Microorganisms see the soil very differently.

Consider a mineral analysis of a rock taken from a field in southwestern Montana and analyzed using X-ray spectrometry.

The rock contains an enormous diversity and quantity of minerals.

To conventional agriculture, much of this mineral content appears inaccessible.

To microorganisms, however, this mineral wealth is highly accessible.

Through enzyme activity, microbes can unlock these mineral reserves.

Microbes can extract nutrients from:

• Rock particles

• Clay minerals

• Organic matter

• Insoluble soil reserves

This is why microorganisms are the true biological gatekeepers of fertility.

Section 2 Summary

Microorganisms are the biological gatekeepers to essential minerals.

They perform three critical functions:

1. Fix Atmospheric Elements

Microbes fix atmospheric elements such as:

• Carbon

• Oxygen

• Nitrogen

into plant-usable forms.

Examples include:

• Carbon fixation

• Nitrogen fixation

• Oxygen incorporation into water and biomolecules

2. Solubilize Insoluble Soil Minerals

More than 99% of soil minerals are insoluble.

Microorganisms release:

• Organic acids

• Chelators

• Enzymes

• Carbonic acid

• Proton gradients

to dissolve and mobilize these nutrients.

3. Transform Fertilizers into Plant-Usable Forms

Microbes also transform applied fertilizers into forms plants can efficiently absorb.

They regulate nutrient availability, improve uptake efficiency, and reduce waste.

The central lesson is clear:

Soil fertility is not determined merely by the minerals present in soil, but by the biological systems capable of making those minerals available.

Section 3: NPK vs Biology

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xowZ3LNCInI

Commercial fertilizers—particularly NPK fertilizers—are largely salt- and acid-based. That is how they achieve solubility.

However, salts and acids damage soil biology, disrupt soil chemistry, and contribute to soil compaction.

Most fertilizers are sold in an oxide form, and plants cannot directly use minerals in this form. These minerals must first be reduced before plants can absorb them.

This is where soil biology becomes essential.

When we talk about soil biology, we refer to organisms such as:

• Bacteria

• Fungi

• Protozoa

• Nematode

These organisms provide CO₂ and other nutrients to plants in reduced, plant-usable forms.

It is biology—not fertilizer manufacturers—that converts minerals from oxide forms into reduced forms suitable for plant uptake.

A good example is phosphorus.

Phosphate fertilizer is commonly sold as:

P₂O₅ (phosphorus pentoxide)

Plants do not use phosphorus in that form.

Before phosphorus becomes plant-available, hydrogen ions must be added to transform it into usable phosphate forms.

Who performs this conversion?

Not the fertilizer company.

It is the soil microbiome that performs this reduction process.

Historical Decline in Soil Biological Function

According to Dr. Huber, former plant pathologist at Purdue University - in the 1970s it was common to see corn yields of:

• 300–350 bushels per acre

with relatively low NPK inputs.

He made a statement worth remembering:

“Corn used to be the healthiest crop in the United States.”

Fast forward to the 2020s.

Many farms are now plateaued at:

• 150–200 bushels per acre

despite much higher NPK inputs.

At the same time, corn has become highly disease-prone and increasingly dependent on:

• Herbicides

• Insecticides

• Fungicides

just to reach harvest.

What changed?

A large portion of the soil microbial population that once supported nutrient cycling has been severely diminished.

Decades of:

• Synthetic fertilizers

• Chemical inputs

• Pesticides

have damaged soil biology.

As a result:

• Fewer soil minerals are converted by microbes

• More synthetic NPK is required

• Crop resilience declines

• Disease pressure increases

We now apply more chemical inputs to grow less healthy crops.

NPK vs Biology: A Comparison

The NPK Model

NPK fertilizers are:

• Soluble

• Salt-based

• Acid-based

• Toxic to soil biology

Problems with the NPK-centric approach include:

1. Wrong Chemical Form

Most fertilizer minerals are supplied in oxide forms, which are not directly usable by plants.

Plants require reduced mineral forms, not oxides.

2. Biological Damage

NPK inputs suppress microbial populations.

This weakens natural nutrient cycling.

3. Soil Compaction

Chemical fertility degrades soil structure, causing:

• Compaction

• Reduced pore space

• Lower aeration

• Reduced infiltration

This increases erosion and decreases moisture retention.

4. Reduced Root Zones

Compacted soil limits root growth and nutrient exploration.

5. Anaerobic Conditions

Compaction promotes oxygen-poor (anaerobic) conditions.

Anaerobic soils favor:

• Pathogens

• Toxins

• Disease pressure

6. Low Efficiency

Most fertilizers suffer high losses through:

• Leaching

• Volatilization

• Runoff

• Fixation

7. No CO₂ Generation

Synthetic NPK produces no carbon dioxide, despite CO₂ contributing roughly 90% of plant dry matter.

8. Carbon Loss

Excessive fertilizer use reduces:

• Soil carbon

• Soil organic matter

• Biological resilience

NPK contributes only about 2–3% of plant structural components, yet modern fertility programs focus overwhelmingly on it.

This limits both yield and quality.

And the more chemical fertilizer is used, the worse the system often becomes.

The Biological Model

Now compare that with biologically active soil.

Microorganisms generate soluble nutrients from:

• Atmospheric gases

• Soil minerals

• Organic matter

Unlike fertilizers, microbes reproduce themselves.

They reduce dependence on external inputs.

Benefits of microbial fertility include:

1. Natural Nutrient Solubilization

Microbes convert atmospheric and soil-bound nutrients into plant-available forms.

2. Improved Soil Structure

Microbial activity improves soil aggregation.

This reduces compaction and erosion.

3. Better Water Retention

Biological soils can improve water retention dramatically—sometimes by as much as 50%.

4. Increased Soil Carbon

Microbial systems retain more carbon in soil.

5. Better Organic Matter Cycling

Microbes process organic matter efficiently and continuously.

6. Larger Root Systems

Healthy soil biology expands root mass and root exploration zones.

7. Aerobic Soil Conditions

Biological soils favor aerobic conditions, which suppress pathogens.

8. Toxin Breakdown

Beneficial microbes digest toxins, including residues from:

• Fertilizers

• Salts

• Herbicides

• Pesticides

9. High Efficiency

Biological systems are highly efficient and often lower cost.

10. CO₂ Generation

Most importantly, microbes generate CO₂.

Since CO₂ contributes roughly 90% of plant dry matter, this becomes a major yield driver.

Biological systems can support 100% of plant component synthesis, improve yields, and increase crop quality.

Unlike chemical dependency:

The more biology you build, the better the system becomes.

Soil Microorganisms and Plant Nutrition

A major body of work supporting this view comes from:

Soil Microorganisms and Higher Plants by Nikolai K. Khilnani (transliterated from the USSR Academy of Sciences).

This research, spanning the late 1800s to roughly 1950, examined relationships between:

• Soil microorganisms

• Soil minerals

• Plant nutrition

A key conclusion:

Mineral fertilizers do not diminish but often increase inhibitory organisms and pathogens.

Here, “mineral fertilizers” refers to industrial inorganic fertilizers lacking biological activity.

Biological Fixation

The goal of biological agriculture is the transformation of insoluble elements into plant nutrition.

Important elements include:

• Carbon

• Hydrogen

• Oxygen

• Nitrogen

• Phosphorus

• Potassium

• Calcium

• Magnesium

• Trace minerals

These elements exist either:

• in atmospheric gaseous form, or

• locked in insoluble soil reserves

The correct biological organisms fix these elements into plant-available forms.

This produces:

• Higher yields

• Better nutrient density

• Higher food quality

The Soil Food Web in Action

Microscopy reveals a living soil ecosystem.

In healthy soil, we observe:

• Fungal Hyphae

• Bacteria

• Protozoa feeding on bacteria

• Nematodes

• Diverse microbial guilds

This is active nutrient cycling.

One microbe consumes another.

Predation releases nutrients.

The entire microbial community works together to create healthy soil and plant nutrition.

Biological Fixation as Ionization

Biological fixation is essentially ionization—putting elements together into usable forms.

Examples:

Carbon Fixation

Carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide (CO₂)

Water Formation

Hydrogen + oxygen → water (H₂O)

Nitrogen Fixation

Nitrogen + hydrogen → ammonia (NH₃)

Microorganisms drive all of these processes.

They also fix and transform soil minerals.

Once microbial populations are high enough—and the correct species are present—soil fertility becomes largely self-sustaining.

Section 3 Summary

Industrial Agriculture

Industrial agriculture primarily focuses on selling:

• NPK fertilizers

• Chemical rescue inputs

This creates a cycle of feeding crops and then rescuing sick plants.

NPK fertilizers:

• Are salt- and acid-based

• Harm soil biology

• Exist in oxide forms

• Are poorly matched to plant needs

• Increase compaction

• Reduce air, water, and root zones

• Increase pathogens and disease

• Produce no CO₂

Biological Agriculture

Biology, by contrast:

• Fixes atmospheric gases

• Solubilizes soil minerals

• Converts fertilizers into reduced forms

• Reduces compaction

• Improves air and water movement

• Expands root zones

• Suppresses pathogens

• Digests crop residue

• Breaks down chemical residues

The central principle is clear:

Chemical fertility feeds plants directly. Biological fertility builds living soil that continuously feeds plants better.

Section 4: The Power of Soil Microorganisms and Nutrient Cycling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1p3_Hg8D12Q

Mineralization can happen in two primary ways.

The first involves microorganisms that are specifically designed to form mutualistic or symbiotic relationships with plants.

A classic example is Rhizobium.

These microorganisms become integrated into the root system. They tap into plant roots, receive carbon-based energy from the plant, and in return fix specific minerals for plant use.

For example, Rhizobium used with:

• Alfalfa

• Peas

• Beans

• Soybeans

forms nodules on roots. Inside these nodules, the microbes fix atmospheric nitrogen.

Another example is Azotobacter, a mutualistic microbe that does not live inside roots but instead colonizes the root surface. It feeds on plant exudates and fixes atmospheric nitrogen for the plant.

These microbes are directly tied to the root system, and their primary role is to supply plant nutrition.

Thus, bacteria and fungi can both directly and indirectly convert:

• Atmospheric gases

• Soil minerals

into plant-available nutrients.

Predator–Prey Mineralization

There is a second pathway of mineralization.

This occurs through predator–prey interactions among microbial groups in soil.

Within the soil food web, microbes fall into three major functional groups:

Decomposers

These include:

• Bacteria

• Fungi

Their role is to:

• Break down organic matter

• Recycle nutrients

• Improve soil structure

• Reduce compaction

Predators

These include:

• Protozoa

• Nematode

Their role is not to solubilize minerals or decompose organic matter.

Their job is to consume:

• Bacteria

• Fungi

Omnivores / Higher Predators

These include:

• Microarthropods

• Macroarthropods

They consume:

• Bacteria

• Fungi

• Protozoa

• Nematodes

Everything in soil must consume something to remain alive.

This creates a trophic hierarchy.

Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratios Drive Nutrient Release

A critical feature of this hierarchy is that each microbial group has a distinct carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio.

When one organism consumes another, excess nutrients are released into soil.

Average ratios:

Bacteria

Approximately:

5:1

That means:

• 5 carbons per 1 nitrogen

This ratio also applies broadly to many other nutrients:

• Phosphorus

• Potassium

• Calcium

• Magnesium

• Sulfur

• Manganese

• Iron

• Zinc

• Copper

Bacteria are among the most nutrient-dense organisms on Earth.

Fungi

Approximate C:N ratio:

20:1

Protozoa

Approximate C:N ratio:

30:1

Nematodes

Approximate C:N ratio:

100:1

These differing ratios are central to nutrient cycling.

How Nutrient Cycling Works

Consider protozoa consuming bacteria.

Protozoa require a 30:1 C:N ratio.

Bacteria have a 5:1 ratio.

To maintain its 30 carbons, a protozoan must consume roughly:

6 bacteria

After consuming six bacteria, it acquires:

• Excess nitrogen

• Excess phosphorus

• Excess potassium

• Excess calcium

It cannot retain all of these nutrients.

The surplus must be excreted back into soil.

This excretion occurs in plant-available forms such as:

• Ammonium (NH₄⁺)

• Soluble phosphate

These are already in reduced forms, meaning plants can absorb them immediately.

The same process occurs when nematodes consume fungi.

A nematode may consume approximately five fungi to maintain its own internal ratio.

Again, excess nutrients are released back into soil in reduced, plant-available forms.

This nutrient release often occurs directly in the root zone.

Root Exudates and Microbial Feeding

Here lies one of the most elegant biological relationships in nature.

Plants photosynthesize and produce sugars.

Roughly 30% of plant-produced carbohydrates are released through roots as root exudates.

These exudates feed microorganisms.

Microbes need energy to survive, and root exudates provide that energy.

As a result, microbes congregate near the root system.

Predators follow them.

Protozoa and nematodes move into the rhizosphere to feed on:

• Bacteria

• Fungi

As predation occurs, nutrient excess is released directly onto the root surface.

The plant absorbs these nutrients with virtually no loss.

This creates a highly efficient nutrient-delivery system.

It is an extraordinary biological design linking:

• Soil minerals

• Soil biology

• Plant nutrition

Two processes supply nutrients:

1. Microbes solubilize and reduce minerals

2. Predators consume microbes and release excess nutrients

Both processes deliver nutrition in plant-available form.

Why Predators Matter

Microscopy clearly shows protozoa actively feeding on bacteria around organic matter.

This predator–prey interaction is essential.

When decomposers such as bacteria and fungi are consumed by predators such as protozoa and nematodes, excess nutrients become available to plants.

When predatory microbes are absent, nutrient cycling largely stops.

Nutrients remain locked inside microbial biomass.

In that state, plants cannot access them efficiently.

This is why healthy soil requires not only decomposers but also predators.

Biological Analysis of Soil

Just as mineral analysis exists, biological analysis can measure:

• Bacteria populations

• Fungal populations

• Protozoa abundance

• Nematode abundance

These measurements help determine whether microbial ratios are appropriate for specific crops.

For example, one soil sample showed a bacteria-to-fungi ratio of:

16:1

This is far too bacterial for crops such as corn and many row crops.

That compost was biologically imbalanced for its intended use.

Further analysis showed:

• Flagellates were low

• Amoebae were adequate

• Nematodes were abundant

High nematode populations can support nitrogen cycling of approximately:

100–150 pounds of nitrogen per acre

Bacterial-feeding nematodes indicate strong bacterial populations and high nutrient cycling potential.

This information is valuable when planning crop nutrition.

Fungal-Dominant Compost

Another compost sample was intentionally prepared to be fungally dominant.

Specific food sources were used to encourage fungi over bacteria.

The goal was to restore fungal populations in degraded soils.

Such compost can be brewed into microbial mineral tea (often similar to actively aerated compost tea) to produce massive fungal populations.

This fungal-rich tea can then be applied to soils that are excessively bacterial.

One example showed approximately:

4–5 fungi : 1 bacteria

This is highly fungal-dominant.

The sample also contained healthy protozoa populations, supporting nitrogen supply in the range of:

100–150 pounds per acre

According to Soil Microorganisms and Higher Plants, roughly:

66–75% of soil nitrogen exists not in humus but in microbial proteins.

This highlights the central role of living microbial biomass in nutrient storage.

CO₂ Generation in Soil

All microbial activity in soil contributes to:

• CO₂ production

• Nutrient transfer

One of the most important components of the soil atmosphere is carbon dioxide.

CO₂ is the final decomposition product of organic matter.

The intensity of biochemical activity in soil can often be judged by the amount of CO₂ released.

CO₂ formation depends heavily on microbial metabolism.

Anything that promotes microbial growth increases CO₂ generation.

This is why soil biology is central to plant productivity.

Crop-Specific Microbial Ratios

Different plants require different bacterial-to-fungal ratios.

Examples:

Weeds

Require:

• Very high bacteria

• Very low fungi

Grasses

Approximately:

3 bacteria : 1 fungi

Vegetables

Approximately:

1 bacteria : 0.75 fungi

Nearly balanced.

Row Crops

Optimal ratio:

1 bacteria : 1 fungi

Examples include:

• Corn

• Soybeans

• Many annual crops

Woody Vines / Grapes

Require more fungi and fewer bacteria.

Fruit Trees

Can require ratios near:

1 bacteria : 200 fungi

Conifers

Approximately:

1 bacteria : 500 fungi

Old-Growth Cedar Forests

Can reach:

1 bacteria : 1000 fungi

Every plant has an optimal microbial ratio.

The job of regenerative land management is to restore this balance.

These microbial communities help regulate:

• Soil pH

• Soil structure

• Nutrient availability

• Plant defense

Different growth stages—vegetative vs reproductive—may also require different microbial balances.

When required microbial groups are absent, parts of plant nutrition and immune defense are missing.

How Plants Receive Nutrition from Microbes

Plants receive nutrition from microorganisms in multiple ways.

1. Symbiotic Exchange

Examples include:

• Rhizobium

• Azotobacter

• Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi

These microbes solubilize minerals and exchange nutrients with plants in return for root exudates.

Without them:

• Nitrogen fixation declines

• Mineral uptake declines

2. Predator-Driven Nutrient Release

Predatory microbes consume decomposers and release nutrient excess directly into the rhizosphere.

3. Plants Can Eat Microbes

A fascinating discovery in recent years is that plants can directly consume microorganisms.

This process is sometimes described as rhizophagy.

Plants absorb microbes and extract:

• Minerals

• Sugars

• Nitrogen

Nitrogen acquired this way is often in an organic acid form highly suitable for plants.

This makes biological sense.

What better material to build a new plant cell from than another living cell containing:

• Structural minerals

• Sugars

• Amino compounds

• Enzyme cofactors

Everything needed for cell construction is already present.

Mineral Fixation Controls Growth Rate

A key principle of plant growth is this:

The rate of mineral fixation directly controls the rate of cellular production.

This applies to both:

• Plants

• Microbes

Mineral fixation governs availability of:

• Structural minerals

• Enzyme-activating trace elements

The more minerals biology converts into reduced, soluble forms, the faster cells can reproduce and plants can grow.

Thus, biological mineral fixation acts as the governor of plant growth.

If microbial populations are damaged, the rate of mineral fixation declines.

That reduces plant growth potential.

Section 4 Summary: The Power of Soil Microorganisms

Microbes are the central engine of nutrient cycling.

They are essential for:

• Nutrient cycling

• CO₂ generation

• Soil regeneration

• Pathogen control

Microorganisms also influence soil pH:

• High bacterial populations tend to drive soils more alkaline

• High fungal populations tend to drive soils more acidic

Microbes also influence:

• Weed pressure

• Mineral availability

• Plant nutrition

• Plant defense

All plants require a proper bacterial-to-fungal balance.

Plants obtain nutrition from microbes through:

1. Microbial mineral solubilization

2. Predator-driven nutrient release

3. Direct microbial consumption (rhizophagy)

Ultimately:

The rate at which minerals are fixed and made plant-available determines the speed at which plants can reproduce, grow, and achieve full nutritional potential.